Introduction

What has been done so far?

In the previous assignment, I sourced, cleaned and normalized dataset GSE184320. This data is used in the study “Loss of skin and mucosal CXCR3+ resident memory T cells causes irreversible tissue-confined immunodeficiency in HIV”. This data Includes 16 CD45+ cell samples sorted by type of tissue: skin and peripheral blood mononuclear cells. After cleaning, mapping and normalizing the data, 20% of the original data set remains for a total of 11895 genes.

Summary of experiment

The experiment describes the impact of antiretroviral therapy (ART) on skin tissue-resident memory T (Trm) cells in people living with HIV (PLWH). The authors found that late ART initiation leads to permanent depletion of skin CD45+ Trm cells, while early ART can reconstitute the pool of Trm cells lost in early HIV infection. They also found that PLWH receiving late ART treatment had a loss of CXCR3+ Trm cells and a tolerogenic skin immune environment. Additionally, HPV-induced precancerous lesion biopsies showed reduced CXCR3+ Trm cell frequencies in the mucosa in PLWH compared to HIV-negative individuals. These findings suggest that the irreversible loss of CXCR3+ Trm cells in skin and mucosa of PLWH who received late ART treatment may be a contributing factor in the development of HPV-related cancer.

Reference to paper relevant to dataset

Saluzzo S, Pandey RV, Gail LM, Dingelmaier-Hovorka R et al. Delayed antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected individuals leads to irreversible depletion of skin- and mucosa-resident memory T cells. Immunity 2021 Dec 14;54(12):2842-2858.e5. PMID: 34813775

Goal of this assignment

For Assignment 2, the goal is to identify the pathways that are linked with genes that are significantly upregulated or downregulated in PLWH. To start we will import the normalized data and install and load all dependencies for the analysis.

Load dependencies

Load normalized data

Data from Assignment 1 is saved as CSV file and included in Assignment 2 directory.

normalized_count_data <- read.csv("normalized_data.csv")
normalized_count_data

Table 1. Processed count data used for the current analysis. The data is composed of 12,565 genes and 16 samples, where each gene is identified by a unique HUGO symbol and Ensembl ID.

Differential Gene Expression

Heatmap without p-value cutoffs

First, we conduct differential expression analysis with this normalized expression set. We prepare for creating a heatmap and downstream analysis with a heatmap matrix.

heatmap_matrix <- normalized_count_data[,
 4:ncol(normalized_count_data)]
rownames(heatmap_matrix) <- normalized_count_data$Ensembl_ID
colnames(heatmap_matrix) <- colnames(normalized_count_data[,
 4:ncol(normalized_count_data)])

Table 2. Heatmap matrix of normalized expression set

We visualize the top hits using a heatmap. As we can see below, the conditions do cluster together. This is reassuring, as it shows that the expression differences in our top hits are truly associated with the their tissue type.

Scale the heatmap matrix

# scale the heatmap by applying row-normalization
heatmap_matrix_scaled <- t(scale(t(heatmap_matrix)))

if(min(heatmap_matrix_scaled) == 0){
    heatmap_col = colorRamp2(c( 0, max(heatmap_matrix_scaled)), c( "white", "red"))
  } else {
    heatmap_col = colorRamp2(c(min(heatmap_matrix_scaled), 0, max(heatmap_matrix_scaled)), c("blue", "white", "red"))
  }
current_heatmap <- Heatmap(as.matrix(heatmap_matrix_scaled),
                               show_row_dend = FALSE,
                               show_column_dend = FALSE, 
                               col=heatmap_col,
                           use_raster = FALSE,
                               show_column_names = TRUE, 
                               show_row_names = FALSE,
                               show_heatmap_legend = TRUE
                               )
current_heatmap

Figure 1. Heatmap of non-adjusted gene expression values to visualize top hits and clustering

Define groups

Based on the previously generated MDS in Assignment 1, the tissue type of CD45+ cells, specifically SKIN and PBMC seem to cluster more than any other factors. As such, tissue type is the factor we will consider in our model. We can visualize this using the plotMDS function from the limma package.

Visualize MDS plot

pat_colors <- rainbow(10)
pat_colors <- unlist(lapply(pat_colors,FUN=function(x){rep(x,2)}))
limma::plotMDS(heatmap_matrix,
               col = pat_colors )

Figure 2. MDS plot to visualize potential groups

Then as we prepare to calculate p-values and apply multiple hypothesis testing, we define the groups in the sample data and create a model.

Define groups

samples <- data.frame(lapply(colnames(heatmap_matrix)[1:16], 
        FUN=function(x){unlist(strsplit(x, 
                        split = "\\_"))[c(1,2,3)]}))
colnames(samples) <- colnames(heatmap_matrix)[1:16]
rownames(samples) <- c("patient","identifier", "tissue_type")
samples <- data.frame(t(samples))
samples

Table 3. Grouping data by tissue type

Create data matrix

model_design <- model.matrix(~ samples$tissue_type)
model_design

##    (Intercept) samples$tissue_typeSKIN
## 1            1                       1
## 2            1                       1
## 3            1                       1
## 4            1                       1
## 5            1                       1
## 6            1                       1
## 7            1                       1
## 8            1                       1
## 9            1                       1
## 10           1                       1
## 11           1                       1
## 12           1                       0
## 13           1                       0
## 14           1                       0
## 15           1                       0
## 16           1                       0
## attr(,"assign")
## [1] 0 1
## attr(,"contrasts")
## attr(,"contrasts")$`samples$tissue_type`
## [1] "contr.treatment"

Table 4. Data matrix following model

expressionMatrix <- as.matrix(normalized_count_data[,4:19])
rownames(expressionMatrix) <-
  normalized_count_data$Ensembl_ID
colnames(expressionMatrix) <-
  colnames(normalized_count_data)[4:19]
minimalSet <- Biobase::ExpressionSet(assayData=expressionMatrix)

Fit the data to our data matrix

fit <- limma::lmFit(minimalSet, model_design)

Compute differential expression

To analyze the data, we use empirical Bayes with trend=TRUE since it is RNASeq data. To make sure these results were reliable, I corrected for multiple hypotheses using the Benjamini-Hochberg method. I chose this method because it’s better minimizing false positives, which is critical in clinical samples. Since the sample size wasn’t huge, I didn’t go with Bonferroni or other methods that might be too strict and exclude significant discoveries.

Before correction, 4064 genes passed a cutoff of 0.05, and after correction with the BH method, 1337 genes passed. With a cutoff of 0.05, there were 2672 (after correction) and I considered this as excessive, so I decided to make the cutoff more strict at 0.01, as it is a generally accepted p-value for high significance. With a cutoff of 0.01, 2632 genes passed. After correction with the BH method at the same cutoff, 1795 genes remained.

Apply empirical Bayes to compute differential expression for the model

fit2 <- limma::eBayes(fit,trend=TRUE)
topfit <- limma::topTable(fit2, 
                   coef=ncol(model_design),
                   adjust.method = "BH",
                   number = nrow(expressionMatrix))
topfit

Table 5. Differential expression values fitted to model

Merge gene names to topfit table

#merge hgnc names to topfit table
output_hits <- merge(rownames(normalized_count_data),
                     topfit,
                     by.y=0,by.x=1,
                     all.y=TRUE)
#sort by pvalue
output_hits <- output_hits[order(output_hits$P.Value),]
head(output_hits)

Extract the row with the highest absolute log-fold change value

# Find the top gene based on its absolute log-fold change value
top_gene <- rownames(output_hits)[which.max(abs(output_hits$logFC))]
output_hits[top_gene, "x"]

## [1] "ENSG00000166710"

What is its gene name?

# Connect to the Ensembl database
ensembl <- biomaRt::useMart("ensembl", dataset = "hsapiens_gene_ensembl")

# Get the gene name for ENSG00000166710
gene_name <- biomaRt::getBM(attributes = c("ensembl_gene_id", "hgnc_symbol"),
                   filters = "ensembl_gene_id",
                   values = "ENSG00000166710",
                   mart = ensembl)$hgnc_symbol

# Print the gene name
cat("The gene name for ENSG00000166710 is", gene_name)

## The gene name for ENSG00000166710 is B2M

How many gene pass the threshold p-value < 0.05?

length(which(output_hits$P.Value < 0.05))

## [1] 4064

How many genes pass the correction?

length(which(output_hits$adj.P.Val < 0.05))

## [1] 2672

Gene count after analysis

How many gene pass the threshold p-value < 0.01?

length(which(output_hits$P.Value < 0.01))

## [1] 2632

How many genes pass the correction?

length(which(output_hits$adj.P.Val < 0.01))

## [1] 1795

Volcano plot

We can show the overall Volcano plot below based on the p-value cutoff.

library(ggplot2)
# Create a data frame with the log-fold change and p-value columns from topfit
plot_data <- data.frame(logFC = output_hits$logFC, Pvalue = output_hits$adj.P.Val)

# Add a column indicating which genes are significant
plot_data$Significant <- ifelse(plot_data$Pvalue < 0.01, "Yes", "No")

# Create the scatter plot
volcano_plot <- ggplot2::ggplot(plot_data, aes(x = logFC, y = -log10(Pvalue), color = Significant)) + 
  geom_point(size = 0.5) + 
  scale_color_manual(values = c("No" = "black", "Yes" = "red")) + 
  theme_classic() + 
  labs(x = "log2(Fold Change)", y = "-log10(Adjusted P-value)", title = "Volcano plot based on p-value cutoff")

# Display the plot
volcano_plot

Figure 3. Volcano plot showing significant genes based on p-value cutoff

Heatmap with p-value cutoff

top_hits <- output_hits$x[output_hits$adj.P.Val<0.01]

heatmap_matrix_tophits <- t(
  scale(t(heatmap_matrix[
which(rownames(heatmap_matrix) %in% top_hits),])))

if(min(heatmap_matrix_tophits) == 0){
heatmap_col = colorRamp2(c( 0, max(heatmap_matrix_tophits)),
                             c( "white", "red"))
} else {
heatmap_col = colorRamp2(c(min(heatmap_matrix_tophits), 0,
      max(heatmap_matrix_tophits)), c("blue", "white", "red"))
  }

current_heatmap_top_hits <- Heatmap(as.matrix(heatmap_matrix_tophits),
                           cluster_rows = TRUE,
                           cluster_columns = TRUE,
                               show_row_dend = FALSE,
                               show_column_dend = FALSE,
                               col=heatmap_col,
                               show_column_names = TRUE,
                               show_row_names = FALSE,
                               show_heatmap_legend = TRUE,
                               )
current_heatmap_top_hits

Figure 4. Heatmap with p-value cutoff showing much clearer clustering

Questions

Calculate p-values for each of the genes in your expression set. How many genes were significantly differentially expressed? What thresholds did you use and why?

Before correction, 4064 genes passed a cutoff of 0.05, and after correction with the BH method, 1337 genes passed. With a cutoff of 0.05, there were 2672 (after correction) and I considered this as excessive, so I decided to make the cutoff more strict at 0.01, as it is a generally accepted p-value for high significance. With a cutoff of 0.01, 2632 genes passed. After correction with the BH method at the same cutoff, 1795 genes remained.
Multiple hypothesis testing - correct your p-values using a multiple hypothesis correction method. Which method did you use? And Why? How many genes passed correction?

I corrected for multiple hypotheses using the Benjamini-Hochberg method. I chose this method because it’s better minimizing false positives, which is critical in clinical samples. Since the sample size wasn’t huge, I didn’t go with Bonferroni or other methods that might be too strict and exclude significant discoveries. After correction with the BH method at a cutoff of 0.01, 1795 genes remained.
Show the amount of differentially expressed genes using an MA Plot or a Volcano plot. Highlight genes of interest.

See Figure 2. Volcano plot
Visualize your top hits using a heatmap. Do you conditions cluster together? Explain why or why not.

See Figure 1. Heatmap without p-value cutoffs and Figure 2. Heatmap with p-value cutoff

The conditions do cluster together. This is reassuring, as it shows that the expression differences in our top hits are truly associated with the their tissue type.

Thresholded over-representation analysis

With our significantly up-regulated and down-regulated set of genes, we can run a thresholded gene set enrichment analysis. A positive log Fold Change indicates an upregulation in the disease state, and a negative a downregulation in the disease state. Here we can see that we have 846 upregulated genes, and 1786 downregulated genes.

Up-regulated genes

length(which(output_hits$P.Value < 0.01 & output_hits$logFC > 0))

## [1] 846

Down-regulated genes

length(which(output_hits$P.Value < 0.01 & output_hits$logFC < 0))

## [1] 1786

Threshold list

output_hits[,"rank"] <- -log(output_hits$P.Value,base =10) * sign(output_hits$logFC)
output_hits <- output_hits[order(output_hits$rank),]

upregulated_genes <- output_hits$x[
  which(output_hits$P.Value < 0.01 
             & output_hits$logFC > 0)]
downregulated_genes <- output_hits$x[
  which(output_hits$P.Value < 0.01 
             & output_hits$logFC < 0)]

all_genes <- output_hits$x[
  which(output_hits$P.Value < 0.01)]

write.table(x=upregulated_genes,
            file=file.path("upregulated_genes.txt"),sep = "\t",
            row.names = FALSE,col.names = FALSE,quote = FALSE)
write.table(x=downregulated_genes,
            file=file.path("downregulated_genes.txt"),sep = "\t",
            row.names = FALSE,col.names = FALSE,quote = FALSE)
write.table(x=all_genes,
            file=file.path("all_genes.txt"),sep = "\t",
            row.names = FALSE,col.names = FALSE,quote = FALSE)

Enrichment analysis

I used gProfiler for the thresholded enrichment analysis. This was because it is a common tool, drawing from multiple annotation sources mentioned in class (ex. KEGG, GO, Reactome) and it has a comfortable R interface. This draws the latest versions from each annotation source separately.

All genes

enrichment_all <- gprofiler2::gost(all_genes, ordered_query = TRUE)
significant_pathways_all <- enrichment_all$result$term_name[order(enrichment_all$result$p_value)]
head(significant_pathways_all)

## [1] "immune system process"               "immune response"                    
## [3] "adaptive immune response"            "regulation of immune system process"
## [5] "leukocyte activation"                "cell activation"

head(enrichment_all$result$term_id[order(enrichment_all$result$p_value)], 5)

## [1] "GO:0002376" "GO:0006955" "GO:0002250" "GO:0002682" "GO:0045321"

length(enrichment_all$result$term_name[which(enrichment_all$result$p_value < 0.01)])

## [1] 1263

p0 = gprofiler2::gostplot(enrichment_all, interactive = FALSE)
p0 <- p0 + ggtitle("Enriched terms with annotation")
gprofiler2::publish_gostplot(p0, highlight_terms = c("GO:0002376", "GO:0006955",
                         "GO:0002250", "GO:0002682","GO:0045321"))

Figure 5. Visualization of enrichment analysis of all genes using gostplot and annotation of top 5 terms.

Up-regulated genes

enrichment_up <- gprofiler2::gost(upregulated_genes, ordered_query = TRUE)
significant_pathways_up <- enrichment_up$result$term_name[order(enrichment_up$result$p_value)]
head(significant_pathways_up)

## [1] "extracellular region"    "epidermis development"  
## [3] "extracellular space"     "skin development"       
## [5] "extracellular vesicle"   "extracellular organelle"

head(enrichment_up$result$term_id[order(enrichment_up$result$p_value)], 5)

## [1] "GO:0005576" "GO:0008544" "GO:0005615" "GO:0043588" "GO:1903561"

length(enrichment_up$result$term_name[which(enrichment_up$result$p_value < 0.01)])

## [1] 336

p1 = gprofiler2::gostplot(enrichment_up, interactive = FALSE)
p1 <- p1 + ggtitle("Enriched up-regulated terms with annotation")
gprofiler2::publish_gostplot(p1, highlight_terms = c("GO:0005576", "GO:0008544",
                         "GO:0005615", "GO:0043588","GO:1903561"))

Figure 6. Visualization of enrichment analysis of up-regulated genes using gostplot and annotation of top 5 terms.

Down-regulated genes

enrichment_dwn <- gprofiler2::gost(downregulated_genes)
significant_pathways_dwn <- enrichment_dwn$result$term_name[order(enrichment_dwn$result$p_value)]
head(significant_pathways_dwn)

## [1] "immune system process"               "immune response"                    
## [3] "Immune System"                       "adaptive immune response"           
## [5] "regulation of immune system process" "leukocyte activation"

head(enrichment_dwn$result$term_id[order(enrichment_dwn$result$p_value)], 5)

## [1] "GO:0002376"        "GO:0006955"        "REAC:R-HSA-168256"
## [4] "GO:0002250"        "GO:0002682"

length(enrichment_dwn$result$term_name[which(enrichment_dwn$result$p_value < 0.01)])

## [1] 1465

p2 = gprofiler2::gostplot(enrichment_dwn, interactive = FALSE)
p2 <- p2 + ggtitle("Enriched down-regulated terms with annotation")
gprofiler2::publish_gostplot(p2, highlight_terms = c("GO:0002376", "GO:0006955",
                         "REAC:R-HSA-168256", "GO:0002250", "GO:0002682"))

Figure 7. Visualization of enrichment analysis of down-regulated genes using gostplot and annotation of top 5 terms.

Questions

Which method did you choose and why?
- The decision to use GProfiler was based on its compatibility with the HGNC symbols in the dataset and its up-to-date nature. Additionally, GProfiler offers user-friendly tools for visualization through both its web server and R library, making it easy to navigate and analyze the results.
How many genesets were returned with what thresholds?
- For upregulated genes, the domain size was 445.
- For downregualted genes, the domain size was 1465.
Run the analysis using the up-regulated set of genes, and the down-regulated set of genes separately. How do these results compare to using the whole list (i.e all differentially expressed genes together vs. the up-regulated and down regulated differentially expressed genes separately)?
- Up-regulated terms: The terms “extracellular region”, “extracellular space”, “extracellular vesicle”, and “extracellular organelle” are all related to cellular components and structures that are located outside of the cell membrane, in the extracellular space. The terms “epidermis development” and “skin development” are related to the biological processes that are involved in the development and maintenance of the epidermis and skin tissues, respectively. Overall, these terms are all related to extracellular structures and biological processes that play important roles in various aspects of organismal development, homeostasis, and function.
- Down-regulated terms: The terms “immune system process”, “immune response”, “immune system”, “adaptive immune response”, “regulation of immune system process”, and “leukocyte activation” all pertain to the immune system, which is responsible for protecting the body against pathogens like viruses and bacteria. The “immune system” is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to identify and eliminate foreign invaders while maintaining tolerance to self. “Immune system process” refers to any process involved in the immune system’s function, such as antigen presentation, lymphocyte activation, and cytokine signaling. “Immune response” specifically refers to the immune system’s recognition and response to a pathogen or foreign substance. “Adaptive immune response” is triggered by exposure to a particular pathogen or antigen, resulting in the production of antigen-specific antibodies and immune memory. “Regulation of immune system process” involves various mechanisms that control and modulate the immune system, including negative feedback loops and regulatory T cells. “Leukocyte activation” is the process by which white blood cells are activated to respond to a pathogen or foreign substance, which involves a complex interplay of signaling pathways and cellular interactions.
- Overall, the enriched terms which include the whole list has very little difference with the down-regulated terms, where each term relates to the immune system.

Interpretation

Questions

Do the over-representation results support conclusions or mechanism discussed in the original paper?

The GProfiler results confirm the dysregulation of immune processes in the skin of PLWH (HIVSeq cohort) discussed in the study. The downregulation of CXCR3 expression and Th1-like T cell-related genes, which are important for anti-viral immunity, suggests a shift towards an anti-inflammatory and tolerogenic environment that may promote cancer. Additionally, the overexpression of genes involved in the regulation of immune effector processes, natural killer cell-mediated immunity, and IL-12 production suggests a tolerogenic or suppressive T helper cell phenotype, further supporting the notion of immune dysregulation in the skin of PLWH.

Regarding the upregulated genes “epidermis development,” “tissue development,” “skin development,” “extracellular region,” “extracellular space,” and “extracellular exosome,” the study does not directly discuss their role in the dysregulation of the immune system in PLWH skin. However, these genes may be related to the development and maintenance of the skin microenvironment that supports Trm cell function. The study highlights the importance of Trm cells in promoting tissue and immune homeostasis in the skin, protecting against microbes and cancer, and playing a role in communication with other cells in the skin microenvironment.

Overall, the GProfiler results provide further evidence of immune dysregulation in the skin of PLWH, with a shift towards a tolerogenic and suppressive immune phenotype. While the study does not directly discuss the upregulated genes in relation to this dysregulation, they may play a role in the development and maintenance of the skin microenvironment that supports Trm cell function, which is crucial for tissue and immune homeostasis in the skin.
Can you find evidence, i.e. publications, to support some of the results that you see. How does this evidence support your results.

In summary, the gene expressions common to support the results from the GProfiler analysis suggest a dysregulation of immune processes in the skin of PLWH, with a shift towards a tolerogenic and suppressive immune phenotype. Down-regulation of CXCR3 expression and Th1-like T cell-related genes indicate a decreased capacity for anti-viral immunity, while up-regulated genes related to skin and tissue development may contribute to the maintenance of the skin microenvironment that supports Trm cell function. In general, these findings provide insights into the immune dysregulation in the skin of PLWH and suggest potential targets for therapeutic intervention.

References

Geistlinger L, Csaba G, Santarelli M, Ramos M, Schiffer L, Turaga N, Law C,Davis S, Carey V, Morgan M, Zimmer R, Waldron L. Toward a gold standard for benchmarking gene set enrichment analysis. Brief Bioinform. 2020 Feb 6
Saluzzo S, Pandey RV, Gail LM, Dingelmaier-Hovorka R et al. Delayed antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected individuals leads to irreversible depletion of skin- and mucosa-resident memory T cells. Immunity 2021 Dec 14;54(12):2842-2858.e5. PMID: 34813775
Chimbetete, T., Buck, C., Choshi, P., Selim, R., Pedretti, S., Divito, S. J., … Peter, J. (2023). HIV-Associated Immune Dysregulation in the Skin: A Crucible for Exaggerated Inflammation and Hypersensitivity. Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 143(3), 362–373. doi:10.1016/j.jid.2022.07.035
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A2: Differential Gene Expression and Preliminary ORA

Helena Jovic

March 3rd, 2023

Introduction

Differential Gene Expression

Heatmap without p-value cutoffs

Define groups

Create data matrix

Compute differential expression

Gene count after analysis

Volcano plot

Heatmap with p-value cutoff

Questions

Thresholded over-representation analysis

Threshold list

Enrichment analysis

All genes

Up-regulated genes

Down-regulated genes

Questions

Interpretation

Questions

References